I am really hoping this will download because I am so proud of it. I wrote this when I was 27. I am an environmental Science major, so this was a really big deal at the time and actually is one of the driving forces behind why I do what I do today.
Fresh Food Transportation in the U.S.
By
November 21, 2009
Abstract
The United States is entering
a phase of greater environmental awareness and with this awareness there is a
need to understand the multi-faceted cost of the goods that we consume. These
costs may be emissions to the water or air; destruction of natural habitat to
create infrastructure; noise pollution; or overuse of resources such as fuel.
This paper will look at two parts of food transportation: fuel consumption and
fuel combustion emissions to the air.
Objectives
1. Understand emission regulations for transportation
industries.
2. Show
intricacies of temperature sensitive food transportation, including
temperature, fuel efficiency, legislation, customer demands, and
equipment/infrastructure cost.
3. Show
energy efficiency and unique characteristics of transport vehicles: water,
train, truck, and airplane.
Introduction
The increase in concern over healthy diet has been mirrored
by an increase in expendable income. These are driving factors in the amount of
produce that is shipped in the U.S. today (the profit-per-pound of fresh fruits
and vegetables is much greater than that of other agricultural products that
are less sensitive to transport and handling conditions). The short shelf-life
of these foods has necessitated developing a dynamic of transport called a
“pull-driven” market. In this market rather than product being mass produced and
then finding a market, a market of daily ordering and fast-delivery is
increasingly popular. Retail inventories are kept low so that basically it is
ordered and shipped simultaneously. In order to facilitate this, transporters
must have high-quality products arriving within days, sometimes even hours
(U.S. 5). This ‘exotic’ fresh food market has been one of the king-makers in
the agricultural community over the last decade. The sensitive nature of the
goods being sold has lead to niche markets in transportation. Qualities such as
texture, color, flavor and smell all affect the salability of the product to
the consumer. If the preservation techniques diminish any of these qualities in
transit whole shipments can be rejected by potential retail sellers. The cost
of ruined goods due to inadequate environment control can be millions of
dollars (Tario ES-1). To meet the needs of growers and retailers, shipping
industries have found multiple ways of preserving fresh food in transit to
market.
Main Body
Refrigeration Unit
There are multiple factors in preserving food during
transportation but the most common, most important one is temperature. There
are several different heat sources to take into account when refrigerating
fresh produce. These include residual heat inside the trailer; exterior heat;
infiltration heat from cracks or seams; and larger blasts of warmer/colder air
from doors being opened (Ashby, 2). Some suggestions to handle these heat/cold
sources are: pre-chill or pre-heat the trailer; keeping the trailer very clean
to reflect heat off of the trailer in warm climates; and using new, specialized
trailer insulation. Conventionally, refrigerated transport has been performed
mechanically with refrigerants, compressors, condensers, and other ‘refrigerator’
components. While units can be run directly off of the carrier engine this is
not generally done for long-hauls with heavy tonnage. The most common and
reliable method is a separate engine that powers a refrigeration system and
runs as needed; whether the carrier engine is running or not.
There other methods of preservation
which are helpful for shorter hauls and in conjunction with the TRU
(Transportation Refrigeration Unit). They are strictly chemical-reaction or
physical convection processes (such as ice). These methods are expensive and
require more hands-on regulation by handlers as well as specialized restocking
facilities. Some of these deal with temperature, some with plant respiration of
chemicals, some humidity, some air-flow, and others restriction of oxygen.
Which method or combination of methods is used depends on outdoor temperatures
as well as on the specific sensitivities of produce. Some foods are temperature
sensitive; others are more sensitive to absorbing smells or flavors. New refrigerated
transport programs will allow operators to program in settings for individual
products and even use this program with cargo of different needs in the same
container. This allows for even more profit since shippers can ship full loads
without worrying about the inner climate of the container being detrimental to
produce of varying needs. This being said, there are limitations to
multi-compartment transportation. The combination of foods must not be those
sensitive to odors being stored with things like onions or garlic; or different
humidity requirements.
Programs
New programs allow for automatic temperature shifts in
response to the humidity, air quality, and internal heat of the trailer. Also,
the program can send information through satellite to give updates on location;
food condition, how many times the doors have been opened; and other
quality-critical information. This means less intervention by the driver too
keep food in high quality. There are previously set program parameters for each
food so that temperatures and humidity are set automatically and optimally.
When an alarm code is sent to the fleet data terminal operators will contact
the driver and give directions (Datatrak).
(Tassou,1469)
Refrigerant
Refrigerants used in the main TRU are just like those used in
a normal in-home refrigeration system.
Mechanical
refrigeration operates by absorbing heat at one point and dispensing it at
another. This is accomplished by circulating a refrigerant between two points.
The refrigerant picks up heat through a coil (evaporator) inside the cargo
space and discharges it through another coil (condenser) on the outside.The
refrigerant is circulated through the system by a compressor, which is driven
by a gasoline, diesel, or electrical motor. (Ashby, 3)
Traditionally CFCs like R22 were being used as the
refrigerant but are being phased out due to ozone depletion from leakage. While
this is good for the ozone, some of the other refrigerants replacing them--that
don’t deplete the ozone--have global warming potential over a thousand times
greater than carbon dioxide. The reason that we care about the chemical makeup
of the refrigerant is because a large proportion of the total emissions that
are released from TRU’s are actually refrigerant leaks. Although TRUs do not
fall under the industry amount of refrigerant used, which is 50 lbs refrigerant
per unit, they must remain under 15% leakage over a 12-month period (Leak).
Cryogenics
The use of N2 and CO2 can prevent the ripening and/or
spoilage of certain fresh foods, but most notably fruit. If used sparingly then
the produce integrity is maintained, if used too much the food can develop
strong flavors or go bad from lack of oxygen. One specialized unit is made by
ThermoKing and is called AFAM+ (Advanced Fresh Air Management System). The unit
controls the humidity and atmosphere levels closely. Even such delicate
products as flowers can be transported for over a month due to a special mix of
gases, humidity, and temperature control (Rosynsky). This extended storage
capability can allow other modes of transport besides truck and air to be more
competitive in the fresh market.
Some of the disadvantages of
cryogenics are possible scarcity of refueling facilities; operator caution is
necessary (vent trailer before entering); and of course that while emissions
are low all of the ‘fuel’ is eventually released to the air, and the fuel is
pure carbon dioxide (Tario, 4-4).
Ice
Ice can be applied to certain foods but must be replenished
after it has melted and most food cannot come in direct contact with it without
damage. The main disadvantage is the space taken up by ice, it is heavy, and
this cuts down on the amount of space available for freight (Ashby, 3).
Mechanical Transport Refrigeration Unit
The size of the TRU is dependent upon its ‘pull-down’
capacity. Very small units could be used if it was just maintaining a steady
state, it is the initial pull-down of the temperature from loading, as well as
in times of extreme heat or cold that make the difference. A typical TRU’s
capacity can range from less than 20,000 Btu/hr to more than 65,000 depending
on the product to be hauled and the operating conditions. . . and the
temperature holding requirements are commonly quoted at 35F, 0F, and -20F while
the ambient air is at 100F. The ability
to provide 50% excess Btu capacity is required. This larger capacity is
imperative for initial pull-down and extreme temperature, but it runs like this
only for a small fraction of the time—the rest of the time it will cycle on and
off. In winter months the TRU is required to provide heat as well, but it is
much less efficient in this mode. “TRU’s must have the capacity to provide 35F
to 65F interior trailer temperatures at zero degree ambient to meet minimum
requirements. The general temperature band requirements are three degrees
Fahrenheit” (Tario, 1-2).
Since TRUs attached to trucks are the
predominant source of refrigerated transport being able to decrease their fuel
consumption, noise and air pollution without decreasing work capacity is very
important. One emerging technology allows for plugging directly into an
electrical grid and running emission ‘free’ while stopped. While there are
still emissions from this grid, through a power plant, at the plant these
emissions are considered point-source emissions and the use of scrubbers and
other technology may be more effective in minimizing them. Of course, the
station where the truck is stopped must have the appropriate infrastructure to
allow for this new technology but it is becoming popular in order to stay in
compliance with EPA and CARB regulations. Most truck stops and
loading/unloading zones have 120/240V capacity but these electric TRU’s require
460V hookups (Tario, 5-26). The reason for the smaller voltages is that currently
the plug-in is used to supply the truck cab electricity for the comfort of the
driver, not to maintain any kind of heavy equipment. The following tables show
the fuel saving, emission saving, and maintenance savings of using eTRUs versus
conventional TRUs. For reference PD stands for ‘pull-down’ or the really
intensive use of the TRU and TM is the regular operation where it turns on and
off on demand.
|
Emissions Benefits of Grid Electric Usage
|
|||||||
|
Emission
|
CO (g/hp-h)
|
NMHC+NOx (g/hp-h)
|
PM (g/hp-h)
|
||||
|
Tier 2
|
4.10
|
5.60
|
0.45
|
||||
|
Power Plant
|
0.09
|
1.00
|
0.12
|
||||
|
Reduction
|
4.01
|
4.60
|
0.33
|
||||
|
Tier 4
|
4.10
|
5.60
|
0.22
|
||||
|
Power Plant
|
0.09
|
1.00
|
0.12
|
||||
|
Reduction
|
4.01
|
4.60
|
0.10
|
||||
|
(Tario, 5-15)
|
|
|
|
||||
|
Annual Cost of Operating an eTRU
|
|||||||
|
Variable
|
Base
|
Min
|
Max
|
||||
|
TRU Usage (h/yr)
Pull-Down Operating Profile
(%)
|
7200
5%
|
5200
0%
|
8736
30%
|
||||
|
PD Fuel Consumption Rate
(gal/h)
TM Fuel Consumption Rate
(gal/h)
Per Gallon Fuel Cost
($/gal)
|
1.4
0.7
$2.50
|
1.0
0.4
$1.50
|
1.7
1.0
$4.00
|
||||
|
Grid Electricity Usage
(h/yr)
PD Electricity Rate (kW)
TM Electricity Rate (kW)
Electricity Rate Cost
($/kWh)
|
1500
15
2.25
$0.13
|
400
10
1.5
$0.05
|
6000
20
3.0
$0.30
|
||||
|
Engine/Compressor Operating
Hour (h/yr)
Maintenance Charge/hour
($/h)
|
1500
$0.85
|
1000
$0.75
|
3000
$1.25
|
||||
|
Total Operational Cost per
Year
|
$11,911
|
|
|
||||
|
Annual Cost of Operating a Standard TRU
|
|||||||
|
Variable
|
Base
|
Min
|
Max
|
||||
|
TRU Usage (h/yr)
Pull-Down Operation Profile
(%)
|
7200
5%
|
5200
0%
|
8736
30%
|
||||
|
PD Fuel Consumption Rate
(gal/h)
TM Fuel Consumption Rate
(gal/h)
Per Gallon Fuel Cost
($/gal)
|
1.4
0.7
$2.50
|
1.0
0.4
$1.50
|
1.7
1.0
$4.00
|
||||
|
Engine Compressor Operating
Hours (h/yr)
Maintenance Charge/hour
($/yr)
|
1500
$1.25
|
1000
$1.00
|
3000
$1.50
|
||||
|
Total Operational Cost Per
Year
|
$15,105
|
|
|
||||
(Tario, 7-4)
Carrier
(Tario, 10)
With the new energy efficient and emission minimizing TRUs
available on the market much of the fuel burned can be attributed to the
carrier engines themselves. To take the TRU even further out of the picture
there are many trailers that can be transported between modes while allowing
for consistent refrigeration and minimal handling when switching carriers. So
we have an energy efficient/emission minimizing refrigeration unit and an
insulated trailer, now to decide which carrier we choose to get the goods to
market. Evaluation of the most common vehicles will tell us that there is type
of fuel, consumption amount of fuel, and all of this being analyzed per
ton/mile carried—to evaluate how energy efficient and ‘clean’ these modes are
in relation to each other.
Compared here are trucks, railroads and inland waterways.
Airlines are a specialty freighting mode that will be looked at later. The fuel
consumption units are set up as follows: per gallon fuel how many miles can you
carry one ton? In all cases 90.09 gallons of fuel would produce one ton of
green house gas (carbon dioxide). The numbers in red are the calculated
distance that the vehicle would go per ton of green house gas produced.
Obviously, the larger the number, the more miles the vehicle can travel with
the least amount of emissions per ton carried.
TRUCK
155 ton-miles/gal x 90.09 gal/ton-GHG = 13,964.0 ton-miles/ton-GHG
RAILROAD
413 ton-miles/gal x 90.09 gal/ton-GHG = 37,207.2 ton-miles/ton-GHG
INLAND TOWING
576 ton-miles/gal x 90.09 gal/ton-GHG = 51,891.8 ton-miles/ton-GHG
(A Modal, 45).
According to this inset water, train,
and truck are respectively the most fuel and emission-friendly modes. With this
comparison of greenhouse gases and fuel consumption it is helpful to see how
many tons of food are on an average load and what the cost is for the producer
to get those tons to market.
|
Standard Modal Freight
|
Standard Cargo Capacity
|
Cost Per Ton-Mile
(cents)
|
|
Highway – Truck Trailer
|
25 tons
|
$26.61
|
|
Rail – Bulk Car
|
110
tons
|
$2.24
|
|
Barge – Dry Bulk
|
1,750
tons
|
$0.72
|
|
Barge – Liquid Bulk
|
27,500
bbl (barrels)
|
|
(A Modal, 7)
You can see that trucks carry the least for the fuel that
they require. Although this would appear to be less environmentally friendly it
is important to take into consideration the special infrastructure that rail
and barge need in order to operate. The upkeep of all these modes; the cost of
equipment, and the fuel that this equipment uses; location; alternate uses for
the land or water; public risk; specialized food preservation equipment; time
of transport and fuel required to run TRU’s; all of these also must be taken
into account for a full picture of environmental cost of each mode.
Semi-trucks
Trucking of refrigerated goods is popular when compared to
other modes of transport for multiple reasons: less stringent shipping
schedules and smaller loads; direct delivery to retail outlets; infrastructure
is public; and fuel is readily available. All of these factors make trucking
profitable for shipping inside the country as well as across borders with
Canada and Mexico.
The increased presence of freight
trucks on U.S. highways is a cause for concern to politicians and the public
alike. High traffic volumes leads to congestion which leads to greater
emissions from idling; damage to roads from heavy freights; and damage to temperature/time
sensitive goods. According to one source: “between 1980 and 2000, capital
spending on highways increased 112 percent and maintenance spending increased
by 14 percent” (Consdorf).
Train
Trains were a large part of the settling of the west
a hundred and fifty years ago. They would bring raw commodities to the east
from farmers in the west and return with supplies that the farmers needed. They
were the lifeblood that built the nation for a very long time. Today children
are still excited to see a long line of boxes winding their way through hills
but much of the practical use of railroads has been forgotten in favor of
faster, possibly more reliable freighting services. Historically trains ran on
steam powered by coal or wood fires. The next improvement was a localized
switch to electrical rails but the infrastructure was too expensive to be used
on a large scale. Currently the most common fuel for trains is diesel fuel with
a combustion engine. One possible wave of the future could be what is called
Maglev, or magnetic levitation. With this technology the trains could hover
above tracks rather than resting directly on the rails. (Steel, 3).
In 1997 railroads had a generalized
service failure in which there could be as many as three months wait for commodities,
this lead to too much product in some places, and none in others. Unfortunately
a lack of storage in areas where trains came to a stand-still left commodities
like grain piling on the ground in railyards without any cover and thus being
unfit for sale (U.S., 1). This breakdown led to a switch from railways to roads
for many agricultural products. The loss of freighting contracts ended in many
longhaul, large railway corporations going out of business or just abandoning
sections of track in less profitable or out-of-the-way places. Today many of
these abandoned tracks are part of short-line systems and are trying to compete
with trucking for short-haul fresh food transport (Bitzan). The savings in fuel
in combination with newer refrigeration technology has opened doors for
railways that previously left them out of this profitable market.
Water
The real cost of water transport within the U.S. is the
infrastructure and maintenance of the waterway. “Raw river” is not very useful
for transportation, especially with large vessels. An intricate system of
bridges, locks, and navigational aids are required for water levels to be high
enough to support ships, as well as allowing for other transport across the
river when ships are not present. With waterways being designated as ‘multiple
use’ in U.S. law the infrastructure of shipping can impede upon the rights of
use that others might have. Examples of these other uses are: fishing,
recreational boating, wildlife, flood control, and hydroelectricity production (U.S., 25). The
current majority of goods shipped by water are not refrigerated; but are such
commodities as grain, metal ore, and fossil fuel.
SUMMARY OF THE UNITED STATES FERRY FLEET 2006 BY STATE
(Waterborne, 24)
Because of the differing physical
dynamics of such a large country as the United States there are different modes
that are more efficient, timely, and thus appropriate for different commodities
and infrastructures. The ability to work between modes gives suppliers and
retailers the ability to cut costs while still providing a superior product.
Being able to see the most appropriate mode for different areas is critical,
trying to force an inappropriate mode because it is perceived as being more
environmentally friendly than another can lead to problems. For example: just
because barges use less fuel per ton/mile than a truck does not mean we should
have water-networks for barges in arid, waterless areas—the natural resources
and climate of the region will not permit it. That does not mean that barging
is not essential and important because of its energy efficient qualities: but
it does mean that we need to optimize modes like barging with good railroad and
trucking networks because some areas just don’t have access to water networks
and even if they do, the goods then have to make it to retail stores.
“America’s inland freight system is critical, providing the connections for
goods to access the water transportation network and it involves 1.3 million
freight cars, 20,000 locomotives, and 5 million trucks. Of the 655 million
metric tons of goods moving on the inland waterway system in 1997, 96 percent
moved by barge, and farm products made up 12 percent of that traffic (U.S.,
24).
One significant environmental concern
with the maintenance of waterways is the necessity of dredging (removing
sediment from a channel) to maintain deep enough channels for barges. This dredging
can lead to large amounts of suspended solids, which can affect water-quality.
The larger the barge the more efficient the load is, but these larger barges
necessitate larger infrastructure. “Current studies indicate a price tag of
over $1 billion to do desired improvements. Although the IW trust fund can meet
part of the cost, questions revolve around who should pay and which river
segments should receive the investment funds, and how much is the public
interest in waterways worth to divert taxpayer dollars to complete such
projects.”(U.S., 24).
Airplane
Air cargo is becoming an increasingly popular means of
freight movement. Growth in air cargo is mirroring growth in GDP, providing
faster ways for businesses to deliver high-value goods to their customers.
Boeing projects an average annual growth of 6 percent in international air
cargo during the next decade and 6.4 percent for the next 20 years, with the
most rapid growth expected in Asian markets (O’Connell, 115). Cargo freight is
actually growing at a faster rate than passenger movement, at about a 6.1
percent annual rate of growth. Fed-Ex and UPS are the two largest domestic
all-cargo carriers, providing door-to-door service with intermodal systems
(O’Connell, 109). The dual use of the planes makes it more difficult for buyers
and sellers to access products during congested times but does allow planes to
fly with full loads when there are not enough passengers to pay for the flight.
A popular new venture is the construction and use of ‘freight only’ airplanes
that could land at separate terminals from passengers to allow for loading and
unloading with minimal inspection delays. “California has a surplus of
military-surplus airfields, most of which were built far from population
centers. Some of them are still located in remote areas of the state and
therefore have little prospect of attracting passenger air service” (O’Connell,
42).
Airlines get a bad rap in the food
transportation emission world. They use more fuel per ton/mile than any of
their competitors. Freight-only planes achieve about 5 ton-miles per gallon and
those combined with passengers about 35 ton-miles per gallon (Energy). This being said, they get product to
their destination more quickly than any of the other modes, which in some cases
results in fewer food preservation mechanisms being required.
Trailer
Trailers are one thing that might not immediately come to
mind when thinking of the intricacies of transport, after all, they are just a
box right? Trailers have an impact on commerce in several different ways.
First, there is insulation value; if a trailer is well insulated then the
refrigeration units don’t need to work as hard to keep food at the appropriate
temperature. Then there is aerodynamics, how much resistance does the shape of
the trailer give to the air during transport. One new regulation even “requires
fleets operating 53’ dry vans and reefers in California to use either US
EPA-certified SmartWay trailers, or trailers equipped with aerodynamic devices
that achieve 5% fuel savings for dry freight van trailers, and 4% fuel saving
for reefer trailers. . . and also require the use of low rolling resistance
tires” (New, 1).
Transferring trailers from one mode
of transportation to another, say from truck to train, is an important way to
make freighting more efficient. Carrier exchange could give options for using
the best freighter for different areas—being able to use barges where waterways
are common, trains for long-hauls in the west—and trucks for shorter, in-town
transport, for instance. If trailers are not able to move between carriers then
goods must be loaded and unloaded, which can lead to decreased quality for
perishables with exposure to high or low temperatures and the time required for
resetting of the new trailer to the appropriate temperature. Since goods
already have waiting times due to infrastructure congestion these extra times
for loading and unloading of pallets just decrease food quality.
Last but definitely not least, when
the trailer reaches its destination where are we going to put it? When not in
use trailers must be stored. In the case of ports trailers can often be a big
source of frustration since they take up large amounts of room (acres) and must
be maintained and catalogued for easy retrieval. While it would seem easy to
just purchase more land and expand storage facilities, sea (or inland) ports
are generally very busy towns with high market-value for real estate and being
able to purchase even one acre, let alone one hundred acres of land in New York
City sounds a bit cost prohibitive (U.S., 11). To combat port congestion
without purchasing prohibitively priced waterfront property comes the use of
dry-docks that are further inland from the port. “In southern California, the
Alameda Corridor is under construction to move the huge volumes of cargo to and
from the Ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach. The 20-mile, $2.4 billion corridor,
expected to open in 2002, connects 32 of the ports by rail to an intermodal
transfer site. Accompanying truck lanes are also part of the project.” (U.S.,
31).
Regulations
The Environmental Protection Agency (hereafter referred to as
EPA) has implemented standards for airborne pollution created by the burning of
fossil fuels. If these standards are not met by freighting industries then the
company can be fined and/or refused entrance into certain markets. Different
states have different fines set for violations but the fines for simply failing
to fill out reports can be up to $1,000 and falsified reports carry a hefty
$35,000 max’ fine (Transport, 10). The California Air Resources Board
(hereafter referred to as CARB), is a more stringent version of the EPA
emission standards. CARB can only influence those vehicles that enter or
operate in the state of California but since most fresh produce that is
consumed in the United States is grown in California not being in compliance
makes it difficult to move freely in fresh markets.
The Air Resources Board (ARB) is one
of the agencies that manage transportation emissions in the U.S. They are
responsible for the management of toxic air contaminants (TAC), which are air
pollutants that can cause human illness or death (California’s). The most
common fossil fuel used in freighting is diesel. The following table outlines
the amount and types of emission with different vehicles when all are burning
diesel fuel.
|
Summary of Emissions – Grams per Ton/Mile
|
||||
|
Model
|
HC
|
CO
|
NOx
|
PM
|
|
Inland
Towing
|
0.01737
|
0.04621
|
0.46907
|
0.01164
|
|
Eastern
Railroad
|
0.02419
|
0.06434
|
0.65321
|
0.01624
|
|
Western
Railroad
|
0.02423
|
0.06445
|
0.65423
|
0.01621
|
|
Truck
|
0.020
|
0.136
|
0.732
|
0.018
|
(A Modal, 10)
When the vehicle reaches a loading or
unloading destination there are increased regulations about engines idling
while stopped (this is due to the build-up of emissions when multiple engines
are running in one area). Even if the vehicle itself turns off there is still a
TRU running (unless there is an electrical plug-in that allows it to run
emission free, in which case there are no local emissions).
TransiCold and ThermoKing are two of
the largest and most popular reefer manufacturers. According to their
brochures, emissions see a dramatic decrease with their new TRU units. These
units were lower than current Tier 4 EPA standards as follows:
particulate matter decreased by 30%, and 19% less nitrogen oxides and
hydrocarbons (Carrier). The cost of new ThermoKing refrigeration ranges from
about $21,000 to $25,000. While this might seem like a lot of money to spend on
a refrigerator it is important to recognize that trucking businesses replace
their trailers (and components) about ever 8-10 years anyways to save on
maintenance costs (Tario, 5-16). While purchasing the new units is more
expensive initially, the maintenance costs are actually less due to fewer
mechanical parts. If money is too tight to be able to purchase new units there
are ways to retrofit TRU’s in order to stay compliant. One of these is a diesel
exhaust filter. This filter is self-cleaning using heat from exhaust fumes
(Rypos).
According to CARB there is a seven
year phase-out of all trucks that do not meet the particulate matter and to a
smaller degree NOx standard. This means that this year machinery built in 2002
would no longer be up to spec’ on emission levels and would not be allowed on
the road (inside California) unless they had been modified to within the CARB
parameters. These phase-out periods would continue until the pm level is down below
0.02 grams per hp-hour emission level (Transport, 19). In order to make the
most of these rules there are a few strategies for fleet owners to follow: sell
fleet components to do not meet standards to companies that do not deal with
California; lease or rent new trucks; modify the trucks you have; use alternate
technologies that either don’t use fossil fuels or do not have the same
emission problems as diesel (Berg).
Diesel exhaust is a complex mixture
of thousands of gases and fine particles that contains more than 40 identified
TACs (Tario, E-1). The EPA uses a specific set of standards to measure
emissions from nonroad diesel engines. The standards are divided into several
tiers that grow progressively more stringent. The following chart looks at the
average TRU unit and regulations that govern their operation. It is apparent
that the particulate matter (PM) is the primary concern with diesel.
|
Annual
Emissions for a Standard 34 hp Diesel TRU operating 24hr/day, 6day/wk,
50wk/yr
|
|||
|
Rating
|
CO
(g/hp-h) (g/h) (kg/yr)
|
NMHC +NO2
(g/hp-h) (g/h) (kg/yr)
|
PM
(g/hp-h) (g/h) (kg/yr)
|
|
Tier 2
|
4.1
139.4 1,004
|
5.6
90.4 1,371
|
0.45
15.3 110.2
|
|
Tier 4
|
4.1
139.4 1,004
|
5.6
90.4 1,371
|
0.22
7.5 53.9
|
(Tario, 1-5)
Conclusion
The chart below shows the increase in
pounds consumed per capita in the United States between 1970 and 2003. As you
can see, the demand for food is increasing. Increased income leads to greater
expenditures on ‘exotic’, faddish foods, diets, and other high-price commodities.
Organic or fair-trade foods fit into this exotic category. The advertised benefit to
organic food is that it is better for our bodies and better for the environment
due to fewer chemicals used in the growing of the food itself. The advertised
benefit of fair-trade is that goods produced in other countries must be created
with fair wages for workers in humane working conditions. The downside to these
goods can be felt in transportation, if you get your raspberries from Chile
because they are organic how much more fuel is consumed than local, non-organic
raspberries and how is this increase in emissions versus decreased
pesticide/herbicide use affecting the planet?
Another tricky
arrangement is international and interstate trading of goods. “In many cases
countries import and export similar quantities of the same food products. .
.For example, in 1997, 126 million litres of liquid milk was imported into the
UK and, at the same time, 270 million litres of milk was exported from the UK.
. . milk imports have doubled over the last 20 years, but there has been a
four-fold increase in UK milk exports over the last 30 years (Church). Profit
and trade are important but possibly there are ways to continue trading
regionally available goods, support local farmers, and decrease the
long-hauling of foods that are universally produced.
|
Commodity Group
|
1970 Pounds per capita
|
2003 Pounds per capita
|
% Increase in Pounds
|
|
Fats and Oils
|
53
|
86
|
63
|
|
Grains
|
136
|
194
|
43
|
|
Sugar and Sweetener
|
119
|
142
|
19
|
|
Meat, eggs, and nuts
|
226
|
242
|
7
|
|
Vegetables
|
337
|
418
|
24
|
|
Fruits
|
242
|
275
|
12
|
|
Dairy
|
564
|
594
|
5
|
|
Total
|
1675
|
1950
|
16
|
(Farah)
The following table shows the number
of agricultural commodities that were available in Iowa within the last
century. The gradual decrease in local goods can be safely assumed to apply to
other states and their agricultural trends. States specialize in agriculture
that will grow profitably in their boundaries and while other goods may be
native and easily grown, profitability is a significant factor in what is
grown. In Iowa a common and profitable crop is corn; in Idaho it might be
potatoes, trout, or barley; California is one with multiple warm-weather crops
such as lettuce, oranges, or avocados; Washington is known for apples. These
states all have profitable exports and import the majority of their others
foods. The availability of water, sun, and seasonal temperature parameters all
decide what can and cannot be profitably grown in an area. The thing to
remember is that while the exact same type of food may not be grown in every
area the chances of being able to grow something similar to it is very good.
Some examples of foods that are imported to Idaho from California but could
grow here are: apples, kiwis, paw paws, figs, grapes, blueberries, and peaches.
Some of these plants require being moved into a protected environment during
the winter (figs) but others are actually hardy enough to survive down to -40
degrees Farhrenheit (kiwis). In between these two are grapes or peaches that
even without special protection are able to survive in southeast Idaho if you
get the right variety. These supposedly ‘exotic’ plants and the foods that they
produce need minimal to no protection in cold climates and because of this at
least on a small scale they could be used to augment the fresh food supplies
during warm months and provide for winter months with processing. The one area
they would not be able to provide for is fresh winter eating. For winter eating
there are energy neutral greenhousing methods that make use of very cold-hardy
greens, solar heating, and protective structures.
(Pirog, 29)
The food transportation industry use of fossil
fuels is not going to go away; there is too great a range of food preferences
and too great a range of seasons and locales to be able to grow all of the
commodities that are currently in demand. Trying to grow all of the food goods
currently available in supermarkets locally would necessitate greenhouses in
cold areas; intensive watering in deserts; intensive fertilizing in poor soil;
and on and on, because trying to grow foods in areas that they are not
naturally inclined to grow in will always require intensive management and
resource input. Statewide and consequently nationwide economies depend on being
able to sell agricultural products to the highest bidder. The freedom to do so
allows for profit to be made and provides high-quality goods to consumers. With
these benefits to producers and consumers we are finding that there are other
costs besides those of production. Emissions affect the health of those exposed
to them as well as the world-wide environment. Fuel cost continues to rise as
well as using a limited resource. The optimal solution to the problems
associated with transport fuel use and consequent emissions will most likely
include local farming and retailing of area-friendly crops, and careful,
modal-flexible, fuel-efficient freighting of ‘exotic’ goods.
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